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AUTOCIDAL & PHEROMONAL PEST CONTROL (Contacts) Autocidal Control.--The use of sterile male pestiferous insects has been
the primary emphasis in autocidal control, although there has been
considerable research in genetic methods, involving the incorporation of
lethal traits into a pest's population. The sterile male approach continues
to be most widely used, there having been no practical demonstrations with
other methods. As none of these methods interfere directly with the natural
enemy component, they are generally considered completely compatible with
classical and other natural controls. However, the cost of the sterile male
approach is generally too high for individual growers, and is usually applied
in conjunction with eradication efforts by government agencies. Autocidal control, because of its focus on
the host insect, is considered by some to be out of the realm of biological control,
especially as the research is done by a group of scientists that is not
usually familiar with natural enemy systems. Its deployment does not involve
natural self-perpetuating balances, but rather is aimed at complete
destruction of the target pest. Host mass production is one of the principal
goals for the successful deployment of autocidal methods, and, therefore, a
great amount of research effort and financial support is given to rearing
improvement. As the controls are never permanent, it is believed by many
thoughtful scientists that this encumbers the discovery of potentially
successful classical biological controls by diverting the scientific work
force and funds away from traditional biological control research. Pheromonal Control.--There is a large volume of literature treating of the
use of pheromones in pest control, the purpose here being to cite the
exceptionally careful work performed in the 1970's and 1980's which laid the
groundwork for most of modern application methods. Dr. H. H. Shorey of the
University of California was the pioneer and leader of the development of
pheromones for pest control. Pheromonal control is ideal to integrate
with living biologcial controls, largely because it is essentially harmless
to nontarget organisms. However, its application requires considerable skill
to be maximally effective, especially in spacing of pheromone traps. The
development of pheromone impregnated strings has allowed for a broader
application from aircraft. Nevertheless, it is a method that must be
continually applied in order to be effective, and it may or may not be cost
effective, depending on the ecosystem, season, year and other factors. Pertinent references to the initial
development of this technology are noted. REFERENCES: [Additional references may be found at MELVYL
Library ] Ailam, G. & R. Galun. 1967. Optimal sex ratio for the
control of insects by the sterility method. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 60: 41-3. Akira, Tai, F. Matsumura & H. C. Coppel. 1971. Synthetic
analogues of the termite trail-following pheromone, structure and biological
activity. J. Insect Physiol. 17: 181-88. Baker, R. H., R. K. Sakai & A. Mian. 1971. Linkage
group-chromosome correlation in a mosquito. J. Hered. 62: 31-6. Bartell, R. J. & H. H. Shorey. 1969a. A quantitative
bioassay for the sex pheromone of Epiphyas
postvittana (Lepidoptear)
and factors limiting male responsiveness. J. Ins. Physiol. 15: 33-40. Bartell, R. J. & H. H. Shorey. 1969b. Pheromone
concentrations required to elicit successive steps in the mating sequence of
males of the light-brown apple moth, Epiphyas
postvittana. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 62: 1206-7. Bartell, R. J., H. H. Shorey & L. Barton Browne. 1969a.
Pheromonal stimulation of the sexual activity of males of the sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina (Calliphoridae) by the female. Anim. Behav. 17:
576-85. Bartell, R. J., H. H. Shorey & L. Barton Browne. 1969b.
Pheromonal stimulation of the sexual activity of males of the sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina (Calliphoridae) by the female. Anim. Behav. 17:
576-85. Bartelt, R. J., P. F. Dowd, H. H. Shorey & D. Weisleder.
1991. Aggregation pheromone of Carpophilus
freemani (Coleoptera:
Nitidulidae): a blend of conjugated triene and tetraene hydrocarbons.
Chemoecology 1: 105-13. Bartelt, R. J., P. F. Dowd, R. S. Vetter, H. H. Shorey &
T. C. Baker. 1992. Responses to synthetic pheromone for Carpophilus hemipterus
(Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) in California field tests. Environ. Ent. (in press). Baumhover, A. H. 1963. Influence of aeration during gamma irradiation of screw-worm
pupae. J. Econ. Ent.
56: 628-31. Bellows, T. S., Jr. & T. W. Fisher, (eds) 1999. Handbook
of Biological Control: Principles and Applications. Academic Press, San Diego,
CA. 1046 p. Birch, M., K. Trammel, H. H. Shorey, L. K. Gaston, D. D.
Hardee, E. A. Cameron, C. J. Sanders, W. D. Bedard, D. L. Wood, W. E.
Burkholder & D. Muller-Schwarze. 1974. Programs utilizing pheromones in
survey or control, p. 411-61. In:
M. C. Birch (ed.), Pheromones. Elsevier, North Holland. Bjostad, L. B., L. K. Gaston, L. L. Nobel, J. H. Moyer &
H. H. Shorey. 1980a. Dodecyl acetate, a second pheromone component of the
cabbage looper moth, Trichoplusia
ni. J. Chem. Ecol. 6:
727-34. Bjostad, L. B., L. K. Gaston & H. H. Shorey. 1980b.
Temporal pattern of sex pheromone release by female Trichoplusia ni.
J. Insect Physiol. 26: 493-8. Bollinger, J. F., H. H. Shorey & L. K. Gaston. 1977.
Effect of several temperature regimes on the development and timing of
responsiveness of males of Trichoplusia
ni to the female sex
pheromone. Environ. Ent. 6: 311-4. Bone, L. W. & H. H. Shorey. 1977a. Disruption of sex
pheromone communication in a nematode. Science 197: 694-5. Bone, L. W. & H. H. Shorey. 1977b. Interactive influences
of male-produced and female-produced pheromones on male attraction to female Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. J. Parasitol. 63:
845-8. Bone, L. W. & H. H. Shorey. 1978a. The influence of mating
and a protein inhibitor on the response of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis
to sex pheromone. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 45: 264-6. Bone, L. W. & H. H. Shorey. 1978b. Nematode sex
pheromones. J. Chem. Ecol. 4: 595-612. Bone, L. W., H. H. Shorey & L. K. Gaston. 1977a. Sexual
attraction and pheromonal dosage response of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis.
J. Parasitol. 63: 364-7. Bone, L. W., L. B. Bjostad, H. H. Shorey & L. K. Gaston.
1977b. Nippostrongylus brasiliensis: Age and
time-of-day effects on pheromone production and response. Expt. Parasitol.
42: 82-6. Bone, L. W., H. H. Shorey & L. K. Gaston. 1978. Nippostrongylus brasiliensis: Factors
influencing movement of males toward a female pheromone. Expt. Parasitol. 44:
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Chromatographic fractionation of aggregation and sex pheromones of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis (Nematoda). J.
Exptal. Zool. 208: 311-8. Bone, L. W., B. D. Hammock, L. K. Gaston, S. K. Reed & H.
H. Shorey. 1980a. Partial purification of the aggregation pheromone Nippolure
from female Nippostrongylus brasiliensis (Nematoda). J.
Chem. Ecol. 6: 197-308. Bone, L. W., B. D. Hammock, L. K. Gaston, S. K. Reed & H.
H. Shorey. 1980b. Partial purification of the aggregation pheromone Nippolure
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Chem. Ecol. 6: 197-308. Bushland, R. C. 1971. Sterility principle for insect control: Historical development
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Vorhis-Key. 1978. Sex pheromone scent marking by females of Pectinophora gossypiella (Lepidoptera:
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